William Blake | Critique Of Organized Religion

William Blake | Critique Of Organized Religion William Blake is known to be a lunatic of his time, from 1757 to 1827, for producing imaginative engravings and mystical poems with radical opinions regarding society and fundamental beliefs. For this reason, his work was not appreciated by the general public at that time even though they eventually became extremely influential on the literary movement known as Romanticism. His condemnation of the authoritarianism nature of organized religion is blatantly shown in Songs of Experience through the depiction of relentless suffering because of the belief that organized religion and social injustice are essentially conflated. For instance in The Garden of Love from Experience, Blake creates a contrast between the innocence and carefree nature of children [playing] on the green, which is also seen in The Echoing Green in Songs of Innocence, and criticism of the Church represented by the metonym, Chapel. The reference to green represents the centre of the village community before the Indust rial Revolution and more importantly, to the innocence of the prelapsarian. In addition, the fact that the Chapel is built in the midst illustrates the view that the Church predominantly causes corruption and hardship in society where contentment is a thing of the past as implied by the expression used to. Consequently, the binary opposition of innocence, the idyllic nature of childhood and experience, the corruption of mankind in the titles of the volumes is an ironic contrast to symbolize the constraints of religious doctrines and the agony inflicted on people as a result. Gaining worldly experiences and knowledge will ultimately distort our innocence; so Blake criticizes the Church and its part in causing as well as upholding social injustice during the Industrial Revolution. This is worthy of exploring because Blake is a poet of the first generation of romanticism so he wrote passionate poems as a protest during the Industrial Revolution when values are shifted and oppression of the poor was a norm. Therefore we are able to get an insight into what people felt during that time of adversity through Blakes powerful lyrical delivery using poetic language, rather than having to interpret meaningless facts and figures. The isolated Songs of Innocence was first published in 1789, and the combined volume of Songs of Innocence and of Experience was later published in 1794, which turns out to be one of the most famous illuminated books Blake has ever composed. He brought about a groundbreaking technique at the time, relief etching, which enabled him to combine visuals and words to present a holistic representation of his vision to the reader. The combination of the two volumes includes an extra subtitle Shewing the Two Contrary States of the Human Soul, to illustrate the two extremes of mankind; innocence which can be associated with the prelapsarian before The Fall of Man and experience, usually associated with the postlapsarian. This can be seen in the engravings on the title page of this volume of flames representing Gods wrath blasting over Adam and Eve who are covering their loins, illustrating their state of experience. As well as that, the additional heading emphasizes the importance of Blakes intention for the two originally separated books to be read side by side, so a complete argument is offered because Without contraries is no progression, he insisted. For instance, complementary poems of the same name like Introduction can be found in both Songs, acting as commentaries on each other with diverse viewpoints. The poem from the Innocence collection is simple with an optimistic tone, showing life through the eyes of children. In the first two lines, we sense that the narrator is youthful and untainted by the world because the repetition of Piping suggests a purely spontaneous and natural form of music. In addition, the fact that the songs are without lyrics symbolizes that in this period of innocence children are not confined to the complex meanings spoken words denote. As a direct contrast, in Introduction of Experience, The Holy Word has been heard by people; signifying complexity is brought into life after gaining experiences and they are subjected to exploitation an d suffering. Other than that, we can observe from the title pages of both Songs the graduation of life. This is because the young children portrayed in Innocence receive education from a nurse, which represents joy and innocence as shown in Nurses Song, the nurse says My heart is at rest within my breast And everything is still when she watches children play on the field. A similar form of innocence is evident in her because she takes pleasure in watching her children in their carefree spirit. However on the title page of Experience, the young children from Innocence are grown up and shown to be weeping by the deathbed of their parents. This symbolizes that children eventually have to grow to endure the harsh experiences life brings, for example death as signified by Runs in blood down Palace walls in London. In addition, they are prone to experience suffering that life as well as society brings to them, the latter being ironical because of the exploitation of children during that period in jobs like chimney sweeping. This is suggested in the Introduction of Innocence where the progression of the last two stanzas foreshadows a transformation from innocence to experience. An element of purity is brought forward when the narrator uses water as ink to write, since it is typically used to represent purity. As t he narrator staind the water clear it is also implied that sins will eventually corrupt the purity of the child, and the inevitability that innocence will turn into experience is first proposed. Therefore, Blake seems to be suggesting that we find our own balance through these subtle comparisons between the two states and to enhance his disapproval of the treatments of people at that time by painting a model scenario of what would be more desirable. In the pairing of The Lamb from Innocence and The Tyger from Experience, a realistic perspective on religion is put forward when the naÃÆ' ¯f ignorant view of children is set against a cynical experienced view. The Lamb is structured like a catechism, which is used to be used to teach children religious teachings, with questions and answers in the first and second stanza, respectively. The central question from the narrator is Little Lamb, who made thee? Dost thou know who made thee? This happens to be one of the fundamental and controversial problems of humanity, concerning the creation of life and the universe. The repetition of Little Lamb, Ill tell thee in the first two lines of the second stanza shows the narrators confidence in his answer. Blake illustrates the link between the lamb and Jesus Christ, whom is symbolically the Lamb of God, in the lines: For he calls himself a Lamb. He is meek, he is mild. The alliterative adjectives meek and mild are a conventional belief of Christs traits and the emphasized connection between the Lamb and Christ is evident. Therefore, this depicts the simple and innocent faith that is typical in children because they do not question their beliefs or authorities, even though the idea of a little child being the creator of the Little Lamb should seem absurd to an innocent mind. On the other hand, in The Tyger there are a series of rhetorical questions posed, rather than one central, focused one, and the tone seems slightly interrogative, adding more tension to the poem. The question which explicitly relates it to The Lamb is in the fifth stanza: Did he who made the Lamb make thee? The poem presents a questioning of whether or not the same divine being or immortal hand or eye is the creator of both the lamb and the tyger, if so; why would He create such a terrifying creature anyway? The destructive nature of the tyger is expressed throughout the poem, for example in the second stanza. The imagery of the fire burning within its eyes exudes a sense of ferocity and danger, which is also suggested by its fearful symmetry. As well as that, the regular iambic meter with a stressed first syllable on each line gives the poem an aggressive and pounding rhythm. This brings the tyger to life, conveying its movements and the reader can feel the beating heart in the poem , adding a layer of intensity, whereas in The Lamb, there is a resemblance to songs and hymns with a calm rhythm to it. This is due to the soft vowels and repetitive couplets, giving the poem a sense of flowing continuity. Consequently, the tyger is essentially a symbol for the evil and darkness of human nature which eventually is responsible for instigating the social evils, as opposed to innocence and goodness represented by the lamb. According to that, the poem offers the reader a more experienced issue so to speak, that God produces suffering and violence in the world too, challenging the typical and conventional beliefs of God that innocent Christians would possess. Another point worth noting is that the tyger portrayed in the poem is in some ways reminiscent of the devils of the Industrial Revolution. The reason behind this is that God is presented as a blacksmith with the craftsmanship of divinity, suggested by the lexes: hammer, chain, furnace and anvil in the fourth stanza which can be associated to the tools and noises that may be heard during that period. The simple union of the two concepts of an imperfect God creating good and evil embodied in the lamb and the tiger, and the endless suffering the Industrial Revolution resulted in, gives the reader a glimpse into Blakes ideology of the relationship between organized religion and social injustice. The conflict between the discussions of creation in the two aforementioned poems leads to the imminent theme of social injustice, which Blake regarded to be made available by the Church which he also accuses to be responsible for repression. This is explored in the two different The Chimney Sweeper poems as Kathleen Raine delicately puts it: The Chimney Sweeper of Innocence can escape in dreams into a heavenly country; but Experience reminds us that the crimes of society against the children of the poor are none the less for that.  [1]  First of all, in the poem in Innocence, even though the sweeper is abandoned as implied by the lines [his] mother diedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ And [his] father sold [him], he seems to be content with his situation. In contrast, the narrators conscious awareness and blame of his parents betrayal and their part in his abject circumstances in Experience is apparent in the lines: Where are thy father mother? Say? They are both gone up to the church to pray. To hide their guilt, the parents go to church and praise God, perhaps so that their sins of abandoning their child to a dangerous job can be forgiven. Optimism is first shown in Innocence in the dialogue the narrator has with Tom, Hush, Tom! Never mind it, for when you heads bare You know that the soot cannot spoil your white hair. A sense of hope in shown in this speech, which is typical of children but it can also mean that nothing can remove the innocence of children, through the juxtaposition of white hair symbolizing purity and blackness of the soot which can not only represent evilness of man that led to this suffering but sins too; also beginning with the letter, s. However, Blake proves this to be untrue in other poems as the innocent will eventually get exposed to the corruption and distortion that comes with age and experience. On the other hand, The Chimney Sweeper in Experience acts as a complaint of the exploitation of children to be chimney sweepers with bitterness, presenting the hard reality. Rather than believing that So if all do their duty they need not fear harm like the chimney sweep in Innocence believed, which is full of naivety because he is hopeful in the cruelty of his situation and faithful that being obedient will eventually get him to the place he wants to be Heaven; he believed that Because I was happy upon the heath, And smild among the winters snow, They clothed me in the clothes of death, And taught me to sing the notes of woe. Blake uses a half rhyme in this stanza to stress the atrocity of the situation and the extent of the narrators suffering. Therefore, the narrator acknowledges that he is made a victim because his parents envy his happiness so he is clothed in the clothes of death which may resemble the black soot that covers a chimney sweepers body and clothes, or it can illustrate his life of endless suffering that resembles death anyway. As well as that, the belief of the narrator in Innocence is twisted and ironic in a way since the nature of the job is dangerous, as implied in the poem in Innocence through coffins of black conveying death, so in reality they are constantly being harmed. Therefore this may suggest that organized religion sometimes makes it possible for children to be made victim of their own innocence. Similarly in Experience, the chimney sweep has been dehumanized to A little black thing and the stark contrast of colors between the snow and him is indicative that he is corrupted to simply a spot of impurity upon the snow. Blakes contempt and skepticism for parents who fail to protect their children, and authorities in England at that time are evident in the final stanza. After the exploitation of children, the parents think they have doneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ no injury which shows their ignorance because in fact the children are not only physically harmed but also psychologically. The plate of this poem paints a realistic picture of a chimney sweep looking at the sky full of gloom, with a bag on his back presumably filled with soot. The effect of this design is that it gives the poem a quality of poignancy because the boy is alone, after knowing that his guardians have disregarded his safety. Other than that, the last two lines of the poem are a powerful accusation due to the fact that Blake condemns God his Priest King. In other words, the Church and the government are criticized for endorsing and upholding the chimney sweep trade, but God is also reproached for his callousness and for condoning the suff ering of His children, His lambs. Blake seems to be suggesting that the Church and the government are conspiring to oppress the weaker communities in society, for instance the poor, perpetuating their misery. The conclusion of the poem, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ make up a Heaven of our misery evokes much thought since it is the narrators realization that the authorities who provoke the suffering makes certain promises of Heaven, of eternal joy, if hed be a good boy as told by the Angel in Innocence. However, these may merely be a form of illusion designed to make the agony and cruelty of the world seem plausible and even honorable. A reference to chimney sweepers is also made in the famous poem London in Experience, bringing to light the exploitation of children at that time and the social degradation that resulted. This is shown in the third stanza where the victim, Chimney-sweepers, along with the others such as the Harlot and Soldier, is shown as a proper noun to enhance the scrutiny of the suffering they are made to endure. The cry refers to the line Could scarcely cry weep! weep! weep! weep! in The Chimney Sweeper of Innocence, which not only echoes innocence because it acts as a plaintive cry but it also urges the reader to empathize with the boy. However it also indicates that the boy is unable to correctly pronounce sweep, which comes with age. Therefore it deepens the effect of the poem since a young innocent boy has to seek ways to escape from the atrocities in life that he needs to face; which in reality he should not have to. The second line reminds the reader of Blakes criticism that the Church con dones chimney sweeping, which covered the children with black soot. Plus, the word blackning symbolizes the corruption and wearing down of the reputation of the Church and its morality which appalls Blake, as well as the citizens of London and the reader. The choice of vocabulary is very interesting here, as appalls acts as a pun insinuating death; a pall being a cloth to cover a coffin, further suggesting that the Church condones death which is also used in Holy Thursday of Innocence. On the contrary, The Ecchoing Green of Innocence, which can be considered to be the counterpart of London, depicts a day in the life of children enjoying the freedom of nature as indicated by the first line The Sun does rise representing dawn and in the last stanza, dusk: The sun does descend. Consequently, it is possible that this reflects the cycle of life as well and the graduation of childhood to maturity. Other than that, the freedom of nature is evident through the repetition of words that gives a sense of happiness throughout, for instance happy, merry, chearful, laugh and so on. It is apparent that the delightful tone conveys an idealistic love for nature and life as opposed to the revulsion of what has become of ones existence in London. The form of London is crucial in understanding the main theme; the alternate rhyming lines, and consistent number of lines and syllables with a simple rhythm throughout evoke a feeling of limitation. Consequently, it provides an initial idea that the poem will contain numerous images of restriction and an in-depth study of the fears of the people during that period of time. The Ecchoing Green however, has three verses of ten short lines with an alternating rhyme scheme. The effect of the short lines is that the rhyme is heard more frequently so the ambiance of the poem is more lighthearted instead of the dark, bitter tone of London. Other than that the rhyme enables the poem to flow, and producing the echo as suggested by the title at the same time, which brings to mind a raw setting. The notion of confinement of London is further dealt with in the ambiguity of the word that appears in the first line charterd, which is also repeated in the next line, as it can convey freedom as well as constraint and control. However when the word is put against the phrase Thames does flow, an oxymoron is created by implying that a flowing river is being restrained; further developing the notion of a lack of freedom in the city. In addition, the progression from a visual imagery in the first stanza Marks of weakness, marks of woe, to aural in the next In every Infants cry of fear makes it virtually impossible for the reader or audience to shy away from the grave topic. Blake makes use of a pun in mark where it is first used as a verb in mark in every face and next as a noun to emphasize the commonality of misery. On another note, the numerous cases in which deliberate repetition is used in the poem not only give emphasis to the subject but it also reinforces the idea of human degradation that should not be overlooked. In every cry of every Man, In every Infants cry of fear, In every voice, in every ban, The mind-forgd manacles I hear. The insistent repetition of every in this case emphasizes that the suffering and agony presented is a social norm, begging for the readers concern and attention. Yet, the last line of the stanza brings to mind the psychological torment the Church endorses; the restriction of thoughts and desires as implied by the mind-forgd manacles that bind the mind from thoughts and any outbursts of rebellion. Also, this can be related to The Garden of Love mentioned beforehand, since it alludes to the fact that organized religion and the Church has a major role in oppressing the poor. For instance, the imagery Blake uses to portray this is the Garden of Love which is now filled with graves,/ And tomb-stones where flowers should be. The graves and tomb-stones signify death after the loss of innocence, represented by the sweet flowers of the past, due to religious authorities. This conclusion can be drawn because of the imperative quote, Thou shalt not written on the door of the Chapel, a biblical allusion to the Ten Commandments, and an instrument to make repression and prohibition of expression appear acceptable whereas at the same time showing the extent of the restriction imposed by religious doctrines. Although this poem has an implicit link with London, a more obvious connection can be found between it and The Ecchoing Green, which is why many critics claim that the latter is the true counterpart assigned to it. The line that draws immediate connection to The Ecchoing Green is: Where I used to play on the green in the first stanza, where the comparison of the tranquility of The birds of the bush,/ Sing lounder around is made against the garden which is destroyed by the regimentation of organized religion. A stark contrast is shown between The Ecchoing Green and London with regards to love within a family. For instance, in the former poem the children return to their mothers and through a simple simile Like birds in their nest, Blake is able to convey innocent love in family life whereas in London even the most fundamental relationship one between mother and child, is tainted. This is evident in the last stanza where a prostitute is portrayed as a representative of women who were victims in England during that time. Plagues implies that the prostitute will pass on venereal disease to her children and family, hence the curse on the infant and the paradoxical expression: Marriage hearse. This is because a hearse is associated to death and funerals; implying that she will wreck the marriage. Other than that, the disease she carries illustrates the corruption of physical self which Blake intended to be a criticism of societys lack of support for this community. Additionally, the pun made on curse can be of the cussing due to her self-loathing for the distress she causes her child, or it can be the horrors that the child will eventually have to face in the world. As opposed to the affectionate mothers in The Ecchoing Green, she is responsible for passing on a disease. The curse can also be on society because everyone is potentially cursed; the total degradation of life and health gives a poignant yet powerful indictment on the social injustices the blackning Church makes allowances for. Furthermore, a powerful condemnation is made in the final two lines of The Garden of Love, And Priests in black gowns were walking their rounds, And binding with briars my joys desires. Throughout the poem the first and third lines of each stanza rhyme but the last line is inconsistent with this rhyme scheme, hence highlighting its importance. An anti-priest view is stated when the connection between Priests and black gowns are made because it suggests that organized religion is responsible for the death and the graves that are previously discussed. The internal rhyme in these two lines is significant because it shows the restriction imposed by the Church and it connects important words together, such as briars and desires. Consequently it reflects the suppression of thoughts and the dictatorship of the Church over peoples freedom. Similarly, the two Holy Thursday poems form an accusation against society for hypocrisy and for the grim lives of children living on charity when read collectively. The two poems depict children from charity schools setting out to St. Pauls Cathedral on Ascension Day, also known as Holy Thursday. However, each of the poems offers a different perspective of the occasion. For instance in the poem in Innocence there are repetitions of words such as Innocent, white, flowers, radiance and lambs, suggesting innocence and delight. At first look the poem seems to be of children singing praise like a mighty wind to the authorities that help the poor the wise guardians of the poor, however the readers interpretation of it may shift after reading the more realistic view in the poem in Experience. The mighty wind of their voices has now become a trembling cry which is ironic since the children shown in Innocence are full of power but in reality they are powerless when being exploited. As well a s that the wise guardians are now compared to being a usurous hand. This effectively demonstrates Blakes criticism that the supposed guardians lack the attention and compassion for the wellbeing of children as they are figuratively compared to a hand. Therefore these two examples show Blakes use of duality in his symbolisms and metaphors to enhance his complaint of society. However, the difference between the experiences of the world of the narrators from each of the poems may be due to the difference in their beliefs and their exposure to reality. Blakes usage of contrasting colours of the uniforms in red blue green with the grey-headed beadles in the first stanza of the poem in Innocence suggests that innocence is in the hands of abused authority. Furthermore, the wands as white as snow may evoke a sense of innocence but the wand can equally suggest rigidity and regimentation. Other than that, the repetition of the quantity of people participating in the occasion in the words: multitude and thousands, shows the large amount of poverty that existed, on a literal level. It also urges us to question why the charities are necessary in the first place, therefore challenging the quality of life people had at that time. On the other hand, a more explicit condemnation is made through the rhetorical questions and partial answers in Experience. Firstly, in the first stanza the flowers are now Babes reducd to misery, which shows the vulnerability of the innocence to be exploited and it makes clear of what they have become victims. Th e rhetorical question presented therefore is whether or not it is a holy thing that some people are still so miserable in such a well-developed country. Also, this can emphasize the views brought forward in The Tyger, challenging the conventional God which brings pain and torture as suggested by the phrase filld with thorns, as well as evil to the world. The answer to the question seems to be in the second stanza, where the repetition of poorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ poverty! creates an emphasis on the hostile conditions, where the relentless suffering of the children are also illustrated through the repetition of And their in the third stanza. Therefore the ironic contrast between a rich and fruitful land and a land of poverty is formed, where the latter may in actual fact suggest the spiritual poverty of the system which appears to be the root of the problem. This is also suggested in the puns of the last stanza where the words sun and rain bring to mind son and reign, respectively. These w ords can be related back to Jesus and it shows that as long as Jesus is present in the people there will be spiritual fulfillment. As a result, the reason for the exploitation of children is suggested to be due to peoples lack of spiritual welfare so they compensate by being materialistic. The two lines in which these puns are used, For where-eer the sun does shine, And were-eer the rain does fallà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ present a vision and hope for the future where children are no longer abused by the system. Plus, references to the nature are made as opposed to the eternal winter caused by men and industrialization, which shows the bleakness of the children. The structures of the two poems contribute a lot to their purposes too; for example the iambic heptameter and relatively longer lines in Holy Thursday in Innocence informs the reader about the gravity of the matter being dealt with, whilst the short lines of the poem in Experience is more upfront about the bitter indignation it offers. The rhyming couplets in each verse of the poem in Innocence give a sense of the march of the children that is being depicted. As well as that, the plates paint a melancholic and authentic picture of the reality of the situation where in Innocence children are being lead by the beadles whereas victims of poverty are depicted in Experience. The latter plate gives a picture of dead children and their helpless mothers in horror at the sight of them. Consequently, if we look at the two plates together they imply that the beadles or establishment symbolically led the children to their death and suffering, which may be Blakes intention after all. In conclusion, through the exploration of these various sets of poems, a deeper understanding into Blakes critique of the social conditions and exploitation that are condoned by a supposed guardian of society, the Church, is evident. This is apparent through the blatant portrayal of suffering and darkness in the poems in Experience, most notably in London where the depths of despair is shown through the Marks of weakness, marks of woe. He emphasizes that this act of inducing misery on others by the Church is despicable through his numerous allusions towards it, mentioning that Every blackning Church appalls. As a result, it makes a bold and unashamed denigration of organized religion in the 18th century. However, due to the dualism and the binary opposites that Blake makes use of through the concept of contrary states, he is also able to form an ironic satire out of certain poems in Innocence to emphasis that children are easily exposed to the evils of the world so we as readers must look deeper and help the victims. This is apparent in the last line of Holy Thursday in Innocence: Then cherish pity, lest you drive an angel from your door where Blake attempts to tell the reader to be compassionate. The concept of dualism is with the intention that the extreme conditions can be laid out and the magnitude of the problem can be recognized, especially the social evils made possible and upheld by the Church, thus the reader can empathize with the victims. Therefore, it is possible that Blake merely aims to bring the harsh conditions to light whilst advising the reader to proceed to make a change to rid of the evils of the authoritarians. Functionalism and conflict: Sociological theories Functionalism and conflict: Sociological theories Sociology is a social science that studies society and the individual in perspective of Society. The origins of Sociology lie in the 19th century but during the 1960-70s, it became a major social science subject, taught in universities and colleges, and schools. The scope of sociology has only become more scientific with time. (Sociology Guide, no date) Sociology is the study of human social life, groups and societies. It is a dazzling and compelling enterprise, having as its subject matter our own behavior as social beings. The scope of sociology is extremely wide, ranging from the analysis of passing encounters between individuals in the street up to the investigation of world-wide social processes. (Giddens cited on Sociology guide, 1989). Sociology enables to gain a better understanding on how the interaction among the society members works. Through the knowledge on sociology, we are able to improve our networking which is very useful and important for businesspeople. The study of sociology today focuses on three primary theoretical perspectives: the symbolic interactionist perspective, the functionalist perspective, and the conflict perspective. 1.2 Functionalism Functionalism views society as a system that is a set of interconnected parts which together form a whole (India, 2009). It emphasizes on the macro level of society and its various parts are understood mainly in term of their relationship to the whole. The founder, Emile Durkheim suggested that social consensus takes one of two forms: namely mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity. Mechanical solidarity is a situation where people with similar vision and beliefs together achieve goal in the society. In contrast, organic solidarity said that although people in the society are interdependent they hold different values and beliefs. 1.3 Symbolic Interactionist Perspective The symbolic interactionist perspective, directs sociologists to consider the symbols and details of everyday life, what these symbols mean, and how people interact with each other (Cliffsnotes, no date). According to this theory, people attach meanings to symbols, and then they act according to their subjective interpretation of these symbols (Cliffsnotes, no date). Early Conflict Theory Conflict theory was introduced by a great German theorist and political activist, Karl Marx (1818-1883). The founder of this conflict mentioned that history of social life began from providing the basic necessities of life such as- food, clothing and shelter (McClelland, 2000).In order to survive in the danger, humans realize the need to work together to improve the social structure (Hatch and Cunfille,2006, p.28). Karl Marx insisted that all things with values in society are the contribution of labor through their engagement in creating the society for their own existence (McClelland, 2000). According to Marx, the society is divided into two classes, the bourgeoisie which is the owners of capital and the proletariat- the labors. Division of labor refers to breaking down of large jobs into many tiny components (Dhamee, 1995). Division of labors, therefore, leads to alienation that is the disenfranchising of workers from the product of their work efforts (Hatch and Cunfille, 2006, p.29). Labor, in fact, is defined as the cost of production rather than merely the means to achieve a collective benefit for the society (Hatch and Cunfille, 2006, p.29). It gives humans a purely instrumental relationship based on their economic value of potential to do work (Hatch and Cunfille, 2006, p.29). Therefore, when the capitalists accepted this alienation, exploitation will take place. As The American Heritage ® Dictionary of the English Language (2000) cited in The Free Dictionary (no date), exploitation refers to the utilization of another person or group for selfish purposes. The central institution of a capitalist society is private property, the system where the capital owned by the dominant groups is controlled by the small minority of the population (McClelland, 2000). The major conflict is on whether which group should get the biggest share of profit. The owner of the land argued that they are entitled as they are the providers of the factors of production whereas the labor stressed that they are the involving in all production. Recent Conflict Theory 3.1 Max Weber Due to the weakness of Karl Marxs conflict theory which is too ideal, Max Weber reformulated the conflict theory and thus he is also known as bourgeois Marx (http://www.change.freeuk.com/learning/socthink/weber.html, no date). In the process of formulation, Weber concerned so much with testing, reassessing or developing Marxs ideas and thus, also known as the bourgeois Marx (Marxism: Structural Conflict Theory, no date) . From his study of the society, Weber went beyond ideas of Marx, for example, Weber focuses on the action in the social institution which is not the same as Marx and Durkheim who viewed the society as an object in itself (http://www.change.freeuk.com/learning/socthink/weber.html (no date). Although Weber agreed with Marxs view that class is economic in its origin, stratification in the opinion of Weber, includes also the consideration of status, power and political parties (Marxism: Structural Conflict Theory, no date). Weber (1924) cited in http://www.change.freeuk. com/learning/socthink/weber.html (no date) states that status is social estimation of labours and the development of seen lifestyles. According to Weber, conflict is occurring in any social relationship when an action within it is oriented intentionally to carrying out the actors own will against the resistance of the other party or parties (Henderson and Parsons, 1947). In the society today, communication has becoming an important cause of conflict. As defined in Websters dictionary, communication involves sending giving, or exchanging information and ideas, which is often expressed nonverbally and verbally (Relationship- with -self.com, no date). For non verbal communication, messages are expressed through facial gestures, body languages and the impression through dressing, body imaging and so on. Verbal communication, on the other hand, means expressing what is on ones mind through voicing out. 3.2 Communication: Government and Media The communication between government and media today has become an important focus and struggle in our society. Governments as the standing pillars of a country, plays a vital role in ruling and maintaining a country in a prosperous state. In order to maintain the harmony, fairness and truthfully are the keys to the stability. In other words, government should treat all the society in a same way and fair. Besides that, government may manage the economy in a good way, so the society can live in a wealthy environment. However, the written communication in Malaysia is implying that the status quo and special treatment of the dominant groups, the Malays cannot be questioned. For instance, Malays are better treated by government than other races. On the other view, the media plays an important role in delivering the governments message to the public. Therefore, nowadays, everyone gains current situation on politic, economy and so on through mess media such as television, radio and newspaper. People can know the actual situations or what is currently happen in the society through the news spread by media. However, media is highly dependent on government. The media is in deep dilemma as they want to spread the truth on the other side, while being controlled by government. Intentionally, government possesses power on the media in order to secure the public trust and to build a positive image of themselves for the public. To further elaborate, government restricts and control media not to spread out government scandal and only spread good or something that is benefit for government, The information needed by the media is so scarce. Therefore, media with limited resources to spread for society is required to obey governments laws and orders and since government is the minority that owns the information. Since media is depending on government to provide them information, government has the power to control and restrict what media can spread out to society. From the explanation above, we can see the interplay of conflict between government and media. The government whom possesses the resources is possesses the power as well. The Overlapping Between Early and Recent Conflict Theories The first overlapping is that both of the conflict theories emphasizes on economic factors. In the olden days, labor and capital are competing over resources. In the world today, labor and capital still exist. The terms just are slightly different. Labor in those days is todays employee. For example employees are competing for job advancement and position in an organization or company. The second overlapping between the early conflict and recent conflict theory is on the reason of occurring is due to scarcity. Bs relationship to A when A possesses something that B requires. For example, government got the power over media because government contains the information that media needs to be included in their newspaper, program and so on. Another example in US, many of the candidates are participating in filling the position of a president. But, it is rare. Only one person is entitled, in other words, it is scarce and thus leads to competition. Dependency increases when resources are important, scarce and non-substitutable. The third overlapping between early and recent conflict theory is inequality. For example in US, there is obviously inequality, the discrimination of the Black by the White. The white always been perceived as the dominant party. As defined in Dictionary.com (2010), discrimination is an act of treatment or consideration of, or making a distinction in favor of or against, a person or thing based on the group, class, or category to which that person or thing belongs rather than on individual merit. The common discriminations are racial, gender and religious intolerance. Until today where the Black has becoming the president, the Black is still being treated as the lower class despite of the fact the situation is slightly improving. Conclusion In a nutshell, conflict theory is a theory that sees the society as a place with inequality which then leads to evolution and social change. In the early conflict theory, an investigation on social class in the free market economy was conducted. It emphasizes merely on the capitalist and the labor as the cause of inequality, which is too ideal. Therefore it leads to the reassessment of the conflict theory by Max Weber. Max Weber, being the supporter of bureaucracy, highlighted more detailed by stating that there are different types of capitalists and skills of labors are vary as well. From our discussion above, semi-struggle between government and media is unavoidable. In my view, conflicts resulted in positivity because it stresses on competition. In order to survive, people will strive to gain the limited resources which then consequence in the improvement of the society.

Continental Philosophy Essay

When beginning the study of philosophy it is hard to believe that there are so many components involved with one subject. But in reality philosophy is really a broad term for many subtopics; as is the case when discussing continental philosophy, which is the philosophical tradition of continental Europe including phenomenology and existentialism. It all began with Absolute Idealism supported by such philosophers as Fichte and Hegel. It was during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries that immense amounts of historical changes taking place in the world were showing in the philosophical movements of that time period. George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel begins the historical analysis of continental philosophy since it all begins with his theories. Though Hegel’s philosophies have been described as difficult his theories form the foundation for what is now known as Hegelian idealism. His theory has four main themes. The first is dependant on the â€Å"Absolute† and states that the â€Å"Absolute† is that which is most real and true and which can also think for itself. The second is based on idealism and he speaks of the objective world being an â€Å"expression of infinite thought† (Moore & Bruder 2005) and that each individuals mind thought processes actually are reflections on themselves. The third theory is based on reality. For Hegel this was not an easy concept. To try to make it easier to understand our book tries to describe it as being similar to mathematics in that everything is coherently connected to another. So in order for something to be completely true it is dependant on all its parts to make it so. Then the forth theory is known as â€Å"The Absolute† and is the â€Å"sum total of reality; is a system of conceptual triads . . . the entire system of thought and reality . . . is an integrated whole in which each proposition is logically interconnected with the rest† (2005). As the nineteenth century turned into the twentieth century what seemed to transpire in philosophy was a direct result of Hegel himself. The response to Hegelian idealism in Europe became known as Continental philosophy which includes the two branches of thought that will be explored, existentialism and phenomenology. Existentialism is a philosophical movement with its main emphasis on individual existence, freedom, and choice. Existentialism became popularized in the 1900’s. Mainly due to what was happening during World War II, many of the popular existentialists were affected by the traumatic world events of that time period. Albert Camus was profoundly affected by World War II and this was depicted throughout his many writings. According to our reading he saw much suffering and despair prior to the war even starting. He eventually became active in social reform and was a member of the communist party for a brief period of time. Even though he will forever be connected to the world of existentialism, he never accepted that to be true. Regardless of his beliefs to whether or not he was an existentialist his thought process has been forever linked. Considered to be a literary genius of his time he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1957. During the war, Camus published a number of works which have become associated with his principle thought processes on the â€Å"absurd†: his idea is mainly that it is impossible to make rational sense of one’s experience, and human life is made meaningless by mortality. World War II brought Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre together. Sartre is arguably the most famous existentialist. Unlike Camus, Sartre was an atheist. His main beliefs revolve around the fact that there is in fact no God. For Existentialists like Sartre, the absence of God has a much larger significance than the metaphysics of creation: Without God there is no purpose, no value, and no meaning in the world. Phenomenology is the second branch of Continental philosophy that has historical connections to Hegelian idealism and thus existentialism. Phenomenology is the direct result of Edmund Husserl’s philosophies. According to Husserl, the goal of philosophy was to describe the data of consciousness without bias or prejudice, ignoring all metaphysical and scientific theories in order to accurately describe and analyze the data gathered by human senses and the mind. â€Å"Phenomenology, in theory, simply explores conscious experience without making any metaphysical assumptions† (2005). Martin Heidegger was another popular phenomenologist of the twentieth century. He was inspired by Husserl’s works. â€Å"Heidegger, too, was convinced that it was necessary to look at things with fresh eyes, unshrouded by the presuppositions of the present and past† (2005). According to him humans are actually â€Å"ignorant† to everything, what he called the â€Å"true nature of Being† (2005). It all goes back to Socrates and our inner search for something. In reality however Heidegger and Socrates philosophies are not similar in anyway. To define humans as animals capable of rational thinking is for Heidegger a distorted anthropology. He is not concerned with destroying logic, the ability to formulate analogies, or to display ratios. His mission is to preserve the fragile tendencies of spontaneous thought processes. By so doing Heidegger sees himself as presenting the phenomenal world. Continental philosophy is a form of philosophy that broadens the gap across the continents. It was the form of philosophy that took place in continental Europe during the twentieth century. It was during that time that the main philosophers of that time were being influenced by the terror and violence that was surrounding them thanks in part due to World War II. This influential time saw the rise in existentialism and phenomenology. References Moore, B. N. & Bruder, K. (2005). Philosophy: The power of ideas (6th ed. ). Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

Using Ordinal Numbers in Spanish

If you want to say first in Spanish, theres a word for that — and its nothing like uno, the word for one. Its primero, the first of what are called the ordinal numbers. Ordinal Numbers Function as Adjectives The ordinal numbers might be thought of as the adjective form of the cardinal numbers, the numbers in the form they are most often used. Thus uno (one) is a cardinal number, while primero (first) is its ordinal form. The same goes for the cardinal dos  (two) and the ordinal segundo (second). In Spanish, the ordinal forms are used most commonly for the numbers 10 and under. They are: First: primeroSecond: segundoThird: terceroFourth: cuartoFifth: quintoSixth: sextoSeventh: sà ©ptimo, sà ©timoEighth: octavoNinth: novenoTenth: dà ©cimo When used as an adjective, ordinal numbers must agree with the nouns they refer to in both number and gender: el segundo coche (the second car, where coche is masculine), but la segunda vez (the second time, where vez is feminine). Note also that when primero and tercero precede a singular masculine noun, the final -o is dropped: el primer rey (the first king), el tercer trimestre (the third trimester). This change is known as apocopation. For larger numbers, it is common to use simply the cardinal number, especially in speech. Thus el siglo veinte (the 20th century) is more common than the cardinal form, el siglo vigà ©simo, and in writing the numerical (el siglo 20) or Roman (el siglo XX) form is often used. It is also common to word a sentence in such a way that the ordinal form is not used. So, for example, cumple cuarenta y cinco aà ±os (literally, she reaches 45 years) would be the most common way of saying it is someones 45th birthday. In general, the ordinal numbers for 11th and above can be considered mostly a formal usage. In any case, here are examples of larger ordinal numbers. 11th: undà ©cimo12th: duodà ©cimo13th: decimotercero14th: decimocuarto15th: decimoquinto16th: decimosexto17th: decimosà ©ptimo18th: decimoctavo19th: decimonoveno20th: vigà ©simo21st: vigà ©simo primero22nd: vigà ©simo segundo23rd: vigà ©simo tercero24th: vigà ©simo cuarto30th: trigà ©simo31st: trigà ©simo primero32nd: trigà ©simo segundo40th: cuadragà ©simo50th: quincuagà ©simo60th: sexagà ©simo70th: septuagà ©simo80th: octogà ©simo90th: nonagà ©simo100th: centà ©simo200th: ducentà ©simo300th: tricentà ©simo400th: cuadringentà ©simo500th: quingentà ©simo600th: sexcentà ©simo700th: septingentà ©simo800th: octingà ©simo900th: noningentà ©simo1,000th: milà ©simo2,000th: dosmilà ©simo3,000th: tresmilà ©simo4,000th: cuatromilà ©simo1,000,000,000th: millonà ©simo Ordinal numbers can also be written using a superscripted o or a depending on whether it is masculine or feminine, respectively. For example, the equivalent of 2nd is 2o when referring to a masculine noun and 2a when referring to a feminine one. The lower-case  superscripted o should not be confused with the symbol for degrees. Using ordinary lower-case letters (as in 2nd) is also possible when supercripts arent available: 2o, 2a. Mnemonic Device: Remembering the Ordinals You may be able to help youself remember the ordinal forms by connecting them with English words you already know: Primero is related to primary.Segundo is similar to second.Tercero is related to tertiary.A quarter, similar to cuarto, is a fourth of a whole.Five children born together are quintuplets, using the same root word as quinto.An octave, similar to octavo, has eight notes.The decimal, similar to dà ©cimo, system is based on the number 10. Sample Sentences Showing Use of Ordinal Numbers El primer dà ­a fuimos amenazados por un grupo de manifestantes. (The first day we were threatened by a group of protesters.) La estrella de muchas pelà ­culas ha adoptado una segunda nià ±a. (The star of many films has adopted a second girl.) La Fà ³rmula 1 contempla seriamente la opcià ³n de un tercer coche por equipo. (Formula 1 is seriously considering the option of a third team car.) Hermine, la octava tormenta tropical de la temporada de huracanes en el Atlà ¡ntico, se formà ³ hoy. (Hermine, the eighth tropical storm of the hurricane season, formed in the Atlantic today.) Puebla se ubica en el dà ©cimo lugar de las ciudades mà ¡s caras del paà ­s. (Pueblo occupies 10th place of the countrys most expensive cities.) Esta es la lista de episodios pertenecientes a la decimosexta temporada. (This is the list of episodes from the 16th season.) El empresario es el centà ©simo hombre mà ¡s rico de Canadà ¡. (The businessman is the 100th richest man in Canada.) Eres la  milà ©sima  persona que me dice que estoy muy guapo.  (You are the  1,000th  person to tell me that I am very handsome.)

The Importance Of Elizabeth Cell Phone On The Police Office

Tom, in his sweaty t-shirt, sprinted into the police office and announced, â€Å"someone help me, my daughter had been kidnapped.† The closest police officer to the father was Sam Wilson, the chief. Sam confronted Tom and tried to calm him down by sitting him in a chair. When Sam finally got Tom to calm down, he informed him that they can not report a missing child until the child has been missing for 24 hours. Tom then again began to start raising his voice and screamed, â€Å"by then it might already be too late,† while dramatically existing the police office. Tom knew that if he wanted Elizabeth back safely that he had to find her himself. Tom spent several hours driving all around the city looking for his only child until he figured out a way†¦show more content†¦Why did you not answer any of my calls or messages if you were able to have your cellular device.† Before Tom was able to finish his sentence, the police and the kidnapper invaded room 3014. Tom in even more confusion of the irony of the kidnapper and the police arriving at the same time, pointed at the kidnapper and stated, â€Å"arrest this man, for the kidnapping of my daughter.† The Chief then began to start in the direction of Tom while stating, â€Å"Tom Williams you are under arrest for the kidnapping of Sara Scott.† Tom, while being led into the back of a cop car, in anger stated, â€Å"who is Sara Scott? He took my Elizabeth from me!† By this time, Tom has spent several hours just sitting in a dark, black room with just a table, a small reading lamp, an extra chair and his unanswered questions. The investigators finally walked into the room with Dr. Young, the psychiatrist, where Tom was yelling, â€Å"he has my daughter. Don’t let him hurt her.† Dr. Young took the possession of the extra chair and sat in front of Tom. Dr. Young stated, â€Å"if you would like I can explain the confusion in your head. Tom then stated, â€Å"please explain to me why the father gets arrested instead of the kidnapper?† Dr.Young responded with, â€Å"the kidnapper was arrested.† Tom, in shock, asked, â€Å"You got him? Is Elizabeth okay?† Dr. Young then revealed to Tom that Tom, himself, is the kidnapper and then asked Tom, â€Å"Do you remember what happened on the day March 3 in 2004?† Tom responded to Dr.Show MoreRelatedThe Girl Against The Brick Essay2140 Words   |  9 Pagesbeautiful girl stood to the side against the crimson brick exterior of the pub in silence. â€Å"Elizabeth come take another shot with us!† a boy among the group shouted at her. With an indifferent look and a false smile, she took the glass and took another shot of liquor. She then leaned against the brick wall of the pub and looked to the cold night sky. She pulled out her phone and I could see in the illumination of the phone screen that her expression had changed to sadness and pain. 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Congress Passed The Budget Control Act - 1660 Words

On August 2, 2011, Congress passed the Budget Control Act (BCA) of 2011 which cut $487 billion from projected defense spending over the next 10 years.1 The act also established a system of sequestration, which would cut an additional $495 billion from the defense budget.2 Altogether, the BCA would cut almost $1 trillion dollars from the Department of Defense (DoD). The passing of the BCA and the subsequent loss of funding mark an end to a 13-year period of robust budget allocations to support the global war on terrorism. From 2001 to 2013 over $1.6 trillion has been allocated to the DoD to support preparations for and execution of operations in various overseas areas.3 Within this $1.6 trillion, 94% of the funding was allocated to support operations in Iraq and Afghanistan.4 This robust amount of funding cultivated a culture within the DoD that there would always be funding available to cover costs at home and abroad. This culture is deeply entrenched within the United States Army du e to large budgets provided to the Army over the past 13 years. In today’s environment of shrinking budgets, this culture can no longer stand true and must be changed. Establishing a cost-conscious culture (CCC) within the Army is critical to our ability to sustain the current Army force structure and make the needed modernization investments to ensure our capability to fight and win our nations wars. Our world continues to remain a violent, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous environment.Show MoreRelatedFiscal Year 2012 Essay766 Words   |  4 PagesIn 2011, the House of Representatives clashed with President Barack Obama over the federal budget for Fiscal Year 2012. 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Hybrid Network Security Free Essays

ACCEPTED FROM OPEN CALL SECURITY ISSUES IN HYBRID NETWORKS WITH A SATELLITE COMPONENT AYAN ROY-CHOWDHURY, JOHN S. BARAS, MICHAEL HADJITHEODOSIOU, AND SPYRO PAPADEMETRIOU, UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND AT COLLEGE PARK ABSTRACT Satellites are expected to play an increasingly important role in providing broadband Internet services over long distances in an efficient manner. Most future networks will be hybrid in nature — having terrestrial nodes interconnected by satellite links. We will write a custom essay sample on Hybrid Network Security or any similar topic only for you Order Now Security is an imporSSSL tant concern in such networks, since the session 2 Proxy satellite segment is susceptible to a host of attacks, including eavesdropping, session hijacking and data corruption. In this article we address the issue of securing communication in satellite networks. We discuss various security attacks that are possible in hybrid SSSL session 1 SSSL handshaking and satellite translation at client proxy (RPA) networks, and survey the different solutions proposed to secure data communications in these networks. We look at the perforMost future networks mance problems arising in hybrid networks due to security additions like Internet Security Prowill be hybrid in tocol (IPSec) or Secure Socket Layer (SSL), and suggest solutions to performance-related nature — having problems. We also point out important drawbacks in the proposed solutions, and suggest a terrestrial nodes hierarchical key-management approach for interconnected by adding data security to group communication in hybrid networks. satellite links. Security is an important concern in such networks, since the satellite segment is susceptible to a host of attacks, including eavesdropping, session hijacking and data corruption. INTRODUCTION With the rapid growth of the Internet, satellite networks are increasingly being used to deliver Internet services to large numbers of geographically dispersed users. The primary advantage of satellite networks is their wide broadcast reach — a satellite can reach users in remote areas where terrestrial connectivity is not available. Satellite networks are also easily and quickly deployed, and can be a more cost-effective solution in areas where laying ground fiber networks would be too expensive. Although satellite networks offer great potential, they also present significant challenges that need to be addressed. Security is becoming an increasingly important aspect of all network. In this article we focus on the challenges that need to be addressed in order to make satellite networks more secure while maintaining seamless interoperability with terrestrial networks. These security-related challenges include the following considerations: †¢ Satellite channels are wireless broadcast media, which makes it possible for an unauthorized user to receive the signal and eavesdrop on the communication, if it is not encrypted. †¢ Without proper security mechanisms, any sufficiently well-equipped adversary can send spurious commands to the satellite and jam or disrupt the communication. †¢ Satellite channels can occasionally have high bursty errors (for example, during heavy rain) that result in packet loss. Satellite networks also suffer from long propagation delays (for example, 0. 5 seconds for geostationary satellites). Therefore, security systems should add minimal delays to the communication and have mechanisms to recover from loss in security information. Incorporating security solutions originally designed for terrestrial networks, such as Internet Security Protocol (IPSec) or Secure Socket Layer (SSL), into satellite networks can cause severe performance penalties. In this article we consider some of these issues. We focus on data security for IP-based commercial networks, and discuss the performance problems that arise due to the encryption of the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) header and payload when popular unicast security protocols like IPSec or SSL, originally designed for terrestrial connections, are applied to satellite networks without incorporating changes necessitated by the unique characteristics of satellite networks. We also look at the protocols proposed for secure group communication in hybrid satellite networks, and describe a hierarchical approach to group key management that is robust, scalable, and suitable for the characteristic topology of hybrid networks. The rest of the article is organized as follows. We describe the hybrid satellite-network topology and features that make it different from terrestrial networks. We discuss security needs for the hybrid network. We discuss the current approach to provide end-to-end unicast security in hybrid networks, and describe the performance problems arising as a result. We survey 50 1536-1284/05/$20. 00  © 2005 IEEE IEEE Wireless Communications †¢ December 2005 NOC Internet Gateway Proxy Client Proxy NOC (a) Internet Web server Web server (b) n Figure 1. Commercial direct-to-home network topology: a) case 1; b) case 2. the proposals for key management for secure group communication in satellite networks. We describe a possible solution to secure unicast communication without sacrificing performance and highlight our key-management approach to security for group communication in satellite networks. We conclude the article by pointing to future research directions. highly susceptible to the delay-bandwidth product and exhibits very poor performance in satellite channels. Satellite TCP connections need large transmit windows to fully utilize the available bandwidth. However, due to the TCP slowstart algorithm and large propagation delay in the satellite channel, it takes much longer for satellite TCP connections to reach the target window size, in comparison to terrestrial TCP connections. Also, the window is very vulnerable to congestion due to the multiplicative decrease strategy of TCP. The problem is compounded by the fact that TCP misinterprets link-layer corruption (which is the prevalent source of loss in satellite links) as congestion (which is rare) and consequently reduces the window. The PEP provides an efficient solution to the above problem. In satellite networks, a PEP agent is installed at the satellite gateway between the satellite network and the Internet. The PEP agent inspects every TCP packet that flows through the network. For data packets, the PEP sends back premature acknowledgments to the TCP senders, without waiting for the TCP segments to be actually delivered to the receivers. These premature acknowledgments are specially formatted to be indistinguishable from real acknowledgments and they considerably shorten the perceived round-trip delay. Studies have shown that this technique is critical for the performance improvement of satellite networks [2–4]. Hence, TCP PEPs have been widely deployed in satellite networks today. Commercial networks also employ HTTP proxy servers to improve the speed of responses to Web-browser requests. When a user browses through content on the Internet, the application layer protocol in use is HTTP. A typical HTTP exchange involves a request by the browser for a Web page (â€Å"GET†), and a response from the Web server, which contains the hypertext markup language (HTML) text of the requested Web page. A typical HTML page would also contain multiple embedded â€Å"objects† such as images, embedded media or scripts, and so forth. Each embedded object has to be retrieved with a separate HTTP request-and-response exchange. Therefore, a Web page that contains n – 1 embedded objects takes n * RTT time to load fully, where RTT is one round-trip time. This can be extremely costly in a satellite network, where the RTT is usually high. COMMERCIAL HYBRID SATELLITE NETWORK ARCHITECTURE The network topologies we consider are illustrated in Fig. 1. In both topologies, we assume that there is one geostationary satellite with multiple spot-beams covering a large geographical area. Each spot-beam covers a subset of the total user set. We assume that future satellites will have an IP stack, be capable of onboard processing, and switch the data between supported spotbeams. The satellite therefore acts as an IP router-in-thesky. The Network Operations/Control Center (commonly known as NOC or NCC) connects to the satellite through the hub satellite gateway. The NOC is also connected to the Internet through high-speed terrestrial links. Terrestrial users can be either standalone machines (Fig. 1a), or a cluster of machines at each location, such as a local area network (LAN) (Fig. 1b). Terrestrial LANs can be either wired or wireless. Each user or LAN is connected to a local satellite terminal. The users receive traffic from the satellite via the forward channel (satellite downlink). The users can also communicate with the satellite via the return channel (uplink). There is no terrestrial connectivity between the users or the LANs. Usually, in commercial satellite networks that transfer Internet traffic, a split-connection Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) Performance Enhancing Proxy (PEP) is implemented to reduce the negative effects of the satellite link on the Internet connection [1]. Satellite channels provide large bandwidth (which can be as high as 90 Mb/s in the downlink), but also suffer from long propagation delay in comparison to terrestrial links. The delay can be as high as 500 ms (round-trip) for a geostationary satellite link. The propagation delay can have a severe adverse impact on the delivery of Internet traffic. Most of the Internet traffic uses the TCP, which is IEEE Wireless Communications †¢ December 2005 51 SSSL encryption New IP header ESP Original TCP header IP header header TCP payload (SSL record) IPSEC encryption ESP trailer proxy (user side). There is a hub proxy server located at the NOC with the hub satellite gateway — this proxy server represents the gateway proxy for both TCP and HTTP performance enhancements. SECURITY THREATS Similar security attacks can be launched against different hybrid satellite network topologies, but the impact of attacks would differ depending on the type of network and the applications supported by the network scenario. In the following, we list some of the important security threats in the hybrid network described above, and highlight the importance of the threats for the different network scenarios. Confidentiality of information: For networks that require information privacy, a primary threat is unauthorized access to confidential data or eavesdropping. Since the satellite is a broadcast medium, any entity on the ground with the right equipment can receive the satellite transmission. If the data is broadcast in the clear, then adversaries can be privy to the information that is flowing in the network. Data confidentiality can be achieved by message encryption. This requires that the senders and receivers are concurrently aware of the correct cryptographic keys used in the encryption/ decryption operations. This is a twofold problem: the problem of selecting suitable cryptographic algorithms for doing encryption so that overall network performance is not affected, and the problem of coordinating keys between users, that is, key management. Sending spurious commands: An adversary with the right equipment can send spurious control and command messages to the spacecraft, thus making the spacecraft perform operations different from their intended use. This can disrupt legitimate operations and communication in the network. This attack can be prevented if the sources of the messages are properly authenticated by every receiver. This would require suitable mechanisms for authentication, such as digital signatures [5]. The level of security required would dictate the authentication policy, for example, whether only the end users should authenticate each other, or whether authentication should happen on a per-hop basis. The latter might be necessary for scenarios where the satellite should not broadcast spurious information. If the satellite authenticates the source of every message it receives, it will transmit only those messages for which source authentication occurs correctly. Message modification attack: When the traffic goes over open networks, an adversary who is listening on the path can intercept both control and data messages. The adversary can modify the messages and send them to the destination, which can be the spacecraft, the ground terminals, or the end users. When the message reaches the intended destination, it would think that the corrupt message is coming from the true source, but the message content might be different from that expected or required for normal network operation. Message modification can be prevented by SSL record HTML page n Figure 2. IPSec and SSL encryption on a packet. The HTTP proxy server (also known by various other names, depending on the vendor) is implemented in satellite networks to overcome this problem. In a typical implementation, this requires a local Web proxy server at each user location, and a remote proxy server at the central hub facility of the satellite network (i. e. , the NOC). The Web browser at the user location should be able to recognize the local proxy (which can be either software on the client machine, or a separate hardware connected inbetween the client machine and the local satellite terminal). When the browser makes a request for a Web page, the HTTP GET request is sent to the local Web proxy, which forwards the request to the destination Web server. The Web server responds with the requested base HTML page. This page is intercepted by the proxy server at the network hub facility. The hub proxy server reads the base HTML page and sends multiple GET requests to the destination Web server for all the embedded objects in the base HTML page. This exchange occurs over a high-speed terrestrial connection between the hub and the Internet, thereby saving the time each request would have needed for a round trip over the satellite link. As the objects of the Web page are retrieved by the hub, they are immediately forwarded to the proxy at the user location. As the user browser receives the base HTML documents, it generates appropriate GET requests to fetch the objects corresponding to the links embedded in the document. The browser GET requests are terminated at the Web proxy server, which forwards the prefetched documents to the user browser immediately. The net result is that only a single â€Å"GET† request from the user browser traverses the satellite link, while a set of rapid responses quickly deliver the requested Web page and associated elements to the browser. The need for satellite capacity is also reduced, which is the most costly element of a satellite network. In terms of the user’s experience, the user sees a brief pause after the original Web-page request (corresponding to the round-trip time it takes for the request to the forwarded to the destination server, and the response to be received by the browser, over the satellite link), followed by near-instantaneous delivery of all content residing on the requested page. The trade-off is additional hardware at the user location and the central-hub facility. In Fig. 1a, the proxy server at the user represents both the PEP (user side) and the HTTP 2 IEEE Wireless Communications †¢ December 2005 appending message-integrity check mechanisms to every message, for example, message authentication codes (MACs) [6] or digital signatures. Security requirements and policies can dictate whether message authentication should happen only at the communication end points, or whether interme diate nodes should also verify the integrity of every message. Denial-of-service attack: Some attacks on security can be facilitated if strong security mechanisms are put in place for performing message-integrity checks or authenticating users. Consider the case where the satellite does authentication and integrity checks on all messages before broadcasting. An adversary can send a large number of spurious messages to the satellite, thus making the satellite spend significant computational cycles processing the spurious messages, which could be better spent broadcasting legitimate messages. Since the satellite has limited processing power, such an attack can be very effective, especially if strong cryptographic mechanisms like digital signatures are used for authentication and message integrity. This is a denial-of-service (DOS) attack. Although this DOS attack can be launched against any node in a network, a satellite network can be particularly susceptible to such an attack, since the satellite is a single point of failure and can be easily overwhelmed if made to perform too much computation. New IP header ESP Original IP TCP header header header TCP payload ESP trailer Encryption with K1 Original IPSEC ESP tunnel mode encryption New IP header ESP Original IP TCP header header header TCP payload ESP trailer Encryption with K2 Encryption with K1 Layered IPSEC ESP tunnel mode incryption n Figure 3. IPSec and layered IPSec encryption. Key K1 is shared between endpoints only. Key K2 is shared between endpoints and TCP PEPs. 1 embedded objects takes n * RTT to be loaded, an increase in delay by a factor of n. IPSEC FOR SECURITY AT THE NETWORK LAYER Several proposals for data confidentiality and authentication in satellite networks call for use of IPSec, which has been widely adopted by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) for security at the network layer. IPSec and SSL are used independently of each other. IPSec creates an end-to-end tunnel at the network layer for the secure transfer of traffic. The two end-points in the communication negotiate security parameters known as the security association (SA) before traffic can be encrypted. Once the SA has been established in the handshake phase, the IP packets are encrypted using the algorithms and the keys specified in the SA. This is done when the IP-encrypted security payload (IPSec ESP) [9] is used. The IPSec ESP provides for both data encryption and authentication. IPSec provides strong security for data confidentiality and authentication, but it has a heavy byte overhead — in the ESP mode, IPSec adds 10 bytes of overhead to the header and trailer. In addition, if authentication is used, ESP adds 16 bytes or more for the integrity check value, and another 8 bytes or more of initialization vector (IV) if the encryption algorithm uses an IV. Also, IPSec has been designed primarily to secure point-to-point communication; it s not well suited for group communication, due to the lack of the dynamic key-establishment procedure necessary to for secure communication in groups where the membership changes with time. In addition, IPSec does not allow for authentication at intermediate nodes, but this might be useful in some security situations. A widely researched problem when using IPSec in satellite networks is its inability to coexist with PEPs. The keys used for encryption in the IPSec ESP are known only to the two endpoints and therefore any intermediate node in the network cannot decrypt the traffic. IPSec ESP has two modes of operation — tunnel mode and transport mode. In tunnel mode, the entire IP packet is encrypted and a new IP header and ESP header are generated and attached to the encrypted packet (Fig. 3), which adds an extra SECURING END-TO-END UNICAST COMMUNICATION USING IPSEC OR SSL Research on satellite security has focused on using the existing standardized technology, originally designed for terrestrial networks, to fix well-known security holes in satellite networks. Two such protocols that are widely used for secure unicast communication are IPSec [7] and SSL [8]. Figure 2 illustrates the encryption regions of SSL and IPSec. SECURE SOCKET LAYER FOR SECURE WEB TRAFFIC The SSL protocol secures the Web-browsing connection on an as-needed basis. When the client requests a secure connection or the server demands one, SSL is activated to secure the HTTP connection. The resulting connection is popularly known as secure HTTP (or HTTPS) and it encrypts the application-layer HTTP data end-to-end between the client and the server. In the protocol stack, the SSL layer sits between the application and the transport layers. Therefore, SSL encryption hides the TCP payload from all nodes in the network, except the client and the server. SSL encryption does not allow the HTTP proxy to function correctly. The HTML Web page encrypted into the SSL records is readable only by the client and the server who have the decryption keys. The keys are not available to the proxy, and therefore the proxy cannot read the HTML Web page. Consequently, the hub proxy server cannot send requests to the Web server for the embedded objects in the page and, therefore, HTML object prefetching cannot take place. The net result is that a Web page with n – IEEE Wireless Communications †¢ December 2005 53 The HTTP proxy also cannot function when the IPSec ESP is used. Since the HTML page is encrypted end-toend, the HTTP proxy cannot read the Web page in order to prefetch the embedded objects. Therefore, use of IPSec leads to a severe degradation in performance for both the TCP PEP and HTTP proxy. SSSL translation at hub proxy (HPA) SSSL session 2 SSL session 3 Proxy Client Internet Gateway NOC SSSL session 1 SSSL handshaking and translation at client proxy (RPA) Proxy Web server Figure 4. The SSL Internet Page Accelerator concept for efficient HTTPS over satellite. 20 bytes of overhead in addition to the overhead mentioned above. Encrypting the original IP header provides very strong security by disabling attacks (such as traffic analysis, etc. ). In transport mode, the payload portion of the IP packet is encrypted and a new ESP header is attached to the packet after the original IP header, which is in the clear. In either mode, the IP packet payload, which includes the TCP header, is encrypted with keys known only to the end points. Therefore, a TCP PEP, which is an intermediate node in the communication path, cannot read or modify the TCP header, since the PEP does not know the keys. Consequently, the PEP cannot function, thus leading to degradation in the performance of the TCP protocol. The HTTP proxy also cannot function when the IPSec ESP is used. Since the HTML page is encrypted end-to-end, the HTTP proxy cannot read the Web page in order to prefetch the embedded objects. Therefore, use of IPSec leads to a severe degradation in performance for both the TCP PEP and HTTP proxy. It is important to note that the problems that arise from the use of the SSL protocol or the IPSec ESP are independent of one another. It is conceivable that both protocols are used simultaneously, for example, when a secure Web page is accessed via a secure VPN tunnel. However, in such cases the performance issues do not change and the effect would be equivalent to using the IPSec ESP alone. On the other hand, if SSL alone is used, then the performance would be better, since the TCP PEP can function correctly in this scenario. [10] and layered IPSec [11], the idea is to encrypt different regions of the IP packet using different keys (Fig. ). The TCP payload is encrypted with key K1, which is shared only between the endpoints. The original IP header and the TCP header are encrypted with key K2, which is shared between the end points and also with intermediate authorized nodes such as the TCP PEP. Therefore, the TCP PEP can decrypt the header portion of the ESP packet with K2 and read the TCP header to do its performance optimizations. But the PEP cannot read the TCP payload and thus cannot access the actual data, since it does not posses the key K1. The layered IPSec approach allows TCP PEPs to function effectively. However, the method does not solve the problem of HTTP proxy servers. The HTML page is encrypted with key K1 as part of the TCP payload, and K1 is not shared with any intermediate node. Therefore, the Web page is not accessible to the HTTP proxy and no object prefetching can be accomplished. Olechna et al. [12] have suggested two solutions to the IPSec problem. In the first approach, the paper proposes moving the TCP PEP gateways to the endpoints. The TCP optimizations are done on the traffic in the clear, and then the traffic is encrypted using IPSec. There is no TCP PEP at the satellite hub. This approach improves the performance, but when a packet is lost or received in error TCP goes into congestionavoidance phase and the transmission is reduced by half. The second proposed approach, which deals effectively with this problem, is to split the secure connection into two at the satellite gateway. One connection is between the client and the gateway, and the second connection is between the gateway and the Internet server. This allows the gateway to decrypt the IPSec packet and read the headers and thereby do performance optimizations. This requires trust in the satellite gateway, which can now read all the traffic. This might be unacceptable to users who require strong end-to-end security. Several modified TCP protocols have been proposed that perform better than the original specification in the event of channel errors or delay, or when IPSec is used. A discussion of PROPOSED SOLUTIONS TO MITIGATE PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS WITH SSL OR IPSEC Several proposals have been made in academia and industry to deal with performance problems that arise from using IPSec and SSL in satellite networks. The concept of breaking up IPSec encryption into multiple encryption regions or zones on a single packet has been proposed independently in [10, 11]. Although the finer details in the two approaches are different, the basic idea is the same. Known as multilayer IPSec (ML-IPSec) 54 IEEE Wireless Communications †¢ December 2005 Group keys (TEK) K1,8 Internal keys (KEK) K1,4 K5,8 Path of keys for M8 K1,2 K3,4 K5,6 K7,8 Leaf keys Members Group key K2 K1,12 Group key K1 K1,8 K9,12 K1 K2 K3 K4 K5 K6 K7 K8 M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 (a) K1K2 K3 K4K5 K6 K7K8 K9 K10K11K12 M1M2M3M4M5M6M7M8 G1 G2 G3 G4 Members Gateways (b) Figure 5. Logical key hierarchy and its extension to satellite networks: a) with eight members; b) ML-IPSec integrated LKH tree with users and gateways. these TCP enhancements can be found in [13]. The problem of HTTP proxy performance when SSL is used has been addressed within the industry by breaking up the end-to-end single SSL connection between client and server into m ultiple SSL connections [14]. In this solution, the client browser creates a secure HTTP connection with the remote page accelerator (RPA) at the client satellite terminal, a second connection is created between the RPA and the hub page accelerator (HPA), and a third connection is between the HPA and the server (Fig. 4). The RPA performs all necessary handshaking with the client browser. The HPA can decrypt the SSL traffic from the server and perform the desired object prefetching. Taken together, this allows delivery of secure Web content with little performance degradation and with little change to the standard protocols. The major drawback to this scheme is that it requires a high level of trust in the intermediate nodes. The HPA, which is a third-party entity, can read all the sensitive Web traffic that passes between the client and the server. This might be unacceptable when absolute end-to-end security is desired. is O(logN) (where N is the number of members in the group), which is less than the O(N) keys required if the GC arranged the members in a flat topology. To allow PEPs to function correctly when network-layer security is used, [15] proposes the use of ML-IPSec. The paper proposes using a single LKH tree to manage the group key K2, used to encrypt the transport layer header (known to end users and trusted gateways), and the group key K1, known only to the end users and used for encrypting the transport layer data. As shown in Fig. b, users M 1 †¦M 8 are leaf nodes in a subtree of degree three, and gateways G 1 †¦G 4 are leaf nodes in a subtree of degree two. The root key of the member node subtree, K 1,8 , is used to encrypt the transport payload. The root of the overall key tree, K1,12, is used to encrypt the transport header. All member nodes know both K1,8 and K1,12, but the gateways know K 1,12 only (apart from the internal keys in the gateway subtree). How the LKH tree would be managed is not stated in [15]. This is important, since the users and the gateways might not be in the same administrative or security domain. The paper also considers all users and gateways as a â€Å"flat† network for key distribution purposes, rather than taking into account the hierarchical nature of the network topology. The use of LKH for key management in satellite links has also been proposed in [18], which suggests algorithms for dynamically managing the LKH tree in case of member joins and leaves. Duquerroy et al. [19] proposed â€Å"SatIPSec,† for key distribution and secure communication for both unicast and multicast in a satellite network. The solution is based on IPSec, with the addition of flat multicast key exchange (FMKE) to support key management for secure group communication. Management of SAs for both unicast and multicast communication is integrated into the FMKE protocol. FMKE also incorporates reliability mechanisms so as to guarantee reliable key distribution in the lossy satellite setting. However, FMKE manages SAs between the satellite terminals or gateways only and does not extend to the end users. Therefore, end-to-end security is not provided when using SatIPSec. The RPA performs all necessary handshaking with the client browser. The HPA can decrypt the SSL traffic from the server and perform the desired object prefetching. Taken together, this allows delivery of secure Web content with little performance degradation and with little change to the standard protocols. KEY MANAGEMENT PROPOSALS FOR SECURE GROUP COMMUNICATION IN HYBRID NETWORKS Some research has been done with individual algorithms that serve as tools in building keymanagement protocols in order to facilitate secure group communication in hybrid satellite networks. Howarth et al. [15] have proposed the use of logical key hierarchy (LKH) [16, 17] for efficient key management for multicast groups in a satellite network. LKH makes use of a centralized key manager or group controller (GC), which constructs a logical key tree with the group members as the leaves of the tree (Fig. 5a). The internal nodes of the tree are the key encrypting keys (KEK), which are used to securely transport key updates to the group. The root of the tree is the session key or traffic-encrypting key (TEK), which is used to encrypt the session traffic. The number of keys that need to be updated when a member node joins or leaves the group IEEE Wireless Communications †¢ December 2005 55 New IP header ESP Original TCP HTML header IP header header object links Base HTML page Encryption with K2 ESP trailer Encryption with K1 n Figure 6. Layered IPSec with modifications for HTTP optimization. Also, FMKE treats all the satellite terminals it services (which are called SatIPSec clients) in a â€Å"flat† topology, and establishes separate secure channels to all SatIPSec clients. This will not scale when there are a large number of clients. Also, SatIPSec does not consider the dynamic joins and leaves of members in the group communication setting; a client needs to be preauthorized for all the groups it wants to take part in. The protocol also requires complete trust in the group controller and key server (GCKS), which is a third party that is responsible for managing the SAs between the clients. All clients need to have preshared secrets with the GCKS. IPSEC AND SSL IN HYBRID NETWORKS: OUR APPROACH We look at separate solutions to the performance problem arising out of using SSL and IPSec in hybrid networks, and also consider how the two approaches can be combined. HTTP OVER IPSEC TUNNEL One viable method is to break up the end-to-end IPSec tunnel into multiple connections. This is similar to the solution proposed in [12]. But while their approach looks at only the TCP enhancements, we add the use of the HTTP proxy as well. In our approach, the IPSec connection from the client is terminated at the client proxy. The proxy creates its own IPSec connection to the gateway TCP proxy. A third IPSec connection is created from the gateway TCP proxy to the Web server. Schematically, this is similar to Fig. , with IPSec connections replacing the SSL connections in the figure. The IPSec handshaking between the client and the server is spoofed by the client proxy on the client end, and by the TCP hub proxy on the server end. In this model, the Web traffic can be read completely by the client proxy and the hub proxy. The two proxies are able to perform the TCP enhancements because they can read the TCP header. In addition, the hub HTTP proxy can perform HTM L object prefetching from the server because it can read the base HTML page as it is returned to the client on a HTTP request. When the client browser generates staggered requests for the embedded objects upon receiving the base HTML page, the client proxy is responsible for returning local acknowledgments to the requests, and sending all the objects to the client browser at one time. The design is therefore fully able to maintain the functionality of the TCP and HTTP proxies. It also encrypts the traffic so that it can be seen only by the client, the server, and the two intermediate proxy servers. The design also makes minimal changes to existing standard protocols. However, the design also requires that there be full trust in the proxy servers. Also, there is additional overhead in setting up three IPSec connections, as opposed to one (as in the end-to-end case). The overhead in encryption/decryption also increases by a factor of three for every IP packet, since the intermediate proxies need to decrypt the TCP header and the HTML content. When the security requirement is that the traffic be unreadable to intermediate nodes, the above approach will not work. In this situation, we propose extending the layered IPSec approach in order to allow portions of the HTML content to be also accessible to the proxy servers. Assume for layered IPSec that the keys are K1 and K2. K1 is known only to the client and the server, while K2 is known to the client, the Web server, and the intermediate proxy servers at the client and the gateway. When the client makes HTTP requests, the requests are encrypted using K2, so that the client proxy server can read the requests and send local acknowledgments. Additional software at the Web server parses the requested HTML page so as to obtain all the embedded object links. These object links are collated into a new HTML page that contains only the object links, and this new page is encrypted with K2. The base HTML page that contains all the information and the object links is encrypted with K1. Both the encrypted base HTML page and the encrypted object links HTML page are sent in reply. Therefore, the encrypted ESP packet looks as it is depicted in Fig. 6. Upon receiving the IPSec packet from the Web server, the hub proxy is able to read the object links (since it has K2) and therefore do prefetching for the embedded links. In addition, the hub proxy can also read the TCP header and perform TCP enhancements. However, the HTML base-page data cannot be read by the hub proxy, since it does not have K1. The encrypted base HTML page can only be read by the client when the IPSec packet reaches the destination. This design allows the TCP and HTTP proxies to perform effectively while maintaining a high level of end-to-end security. However, the security is not as strong as in traditional IPSec, since the intermediate proxies do get some information insofar as they can read the links of the embedded objects, even though they cannot read the application data. This is the major trade-off necessary to achieve acceptable performance in this design. In addition, the model requires changes to be made to the IPSec protocol so that layered IPSec is supported with the HTTP performance additions. A major issue in the above model is the handshaking mechanism required to set up the layered IPSec connection. To maintain a high level of security, we propose that the connection be set up primarily between the client and the server, who negotiate both K1 and K2, apart from other parameters of the security association. The handshaking mechanism then provides K2 securely to both the client and the hub proxy servers. The client and the hub proxy servers are required to authenticate themselves correctly before they can receive the secondary key or access the IPSec traffic. 56 IEEE Wireless Communications †¢ December 2005 DSSL main mode (K1) DSSL main mode (K2) Internet Gateway Proxy (K2) Client (K1, K2) NOC DSSL primary and secondary modes Original TCP IP header header Proxy SSL record Primary SSL record Proxy (K2) Web server (K1,K2) Encryption with K2 Encryption with K1 IP packet format for DSSL n Figure 7. Dual-mode SSL for HTTP optimization. HTTP OVER SSL When the HTTP traffic is secured using SSL only, and there is no IPSec tunnel in use, several approaches are possible to ensure acceptable performance. If the security requirement of the client and the Web server allow for trusted intermediate nodes, then the SSL accelerator concept of [14] can be a viable solution. This would require no change to the protocols at the expense of higher overhead in order to set up multiple SSL connections between the client, proxy, and Web server. When the security policy does not allow for trusted third parties, a different approach is needed. We propose the use of a modified SSL protocol, which we term dual-mode SSL (DSSL). As shown in Fig. 7, the secure connection in DSSL has two modes — an end-to-end main mode connection between the client and the Web server, and a secondary mode connection that has the hub HTTP proxy as an intermediate node. When secure HTTP traffic is requested, the DSSL main mode connection is first negotiated between the client and the server. As part of the handshake for the main mode, the client and the Web server also negotiate the parameters for the secondary mode. Let K1 be the encryption key for the main mode, and K2 be the encryption key for the secondary mode. The client transfers the parameters of the secondary mode to the client and hub HTTP proxy servers only after the proxy servers authenticate themselves to the client. When the client makes an HTTP request, the client proxy sends local replies to the client browser, as discussed previously. The Web server, on receiving the request, parses the requested HTML page to obtain the embedded object links, which are collated into a new HTML page. The object links HTML page is then encrypted by DSSL using K2 to create the proxy SSL record. DSSL encrypts the base HTML page using K1 to create the primary SSL record. The two records are appended together and sent to the client in an IP packet (Fig. 7). The hub proxy intercepts the IP packet, extracts the object links from the proxy SSL record using K2, and prefetches the embedded objects. The Web server always encrypts the actual objects using K1, so that the hub proxy cannot read the base HTML page data. The hub proxy transfers all the embedded objects together to the client at one time. Therefore, the HTTP proxy functionality is preserved in DSSL while maintaining the end-to-end security of the HTML page contents. However, the security is less than in the end-to-end SSL connection case, since the HTTP proxy can read the object links. In standard SSL, the proxy servers can read no part of the base HTML page, not even the object links. We believe this slight reduction in security is acceptable, given the considerable improvement in performance using this method. The DSSL design is more complex in comparison to SSL since it requires the creation of an additional connection, and therefore involves a higher overhead. There is also the added overhead of multiple encryptions and decryptions with two different keys, and the complexity of parsing the HTML page for the object links. All these require changes to the base SSL protocol. The DSSL concept is similar to the multiplechannel SSL concept proposed in [20]. However, the authors do not differentiate encryption in primary and secondary SSL records but instead suggest that HTTP traffic with lower security requirements be encrypted entirely with keys known to intermediate nodes. For our security requirements, that approach would not be acceptable. Differential Encryption in Single SSL Record — The use of a proxy SSL record is not necessary if various parts of the HTML page can be encrypted with The DSSL design is more complex in comparison to SSL since it requires the creation of an additional connection, and therefore involves a higher overhead. There is also the added overhead of multiple encryptions and decryptions with two different keys. IEEE Wireless Communications †¢ December 2005 57 Secondary SSL encryption Primary SSL encryption New IP header ESP Original TCP Proxy SSL header IP header header record Secondary IPSec encryption Primary SSL record ESP trailer Primary IPSec encryption n Figure 8. Packet format for dual-mode SSL with IPSec. different keys. In that case, the Web server can encrypt the object links in the HTML page with key K2 and the rest of the HTML page contents with key K1, thus creating a single SSL record with different encryption. The hub proxy server can parse the SSL record and decrypt only the object links with key K2, before forwarding the IP packet to the client proxy. We assume that the primary and secondary encryption keys K1 and K2 have been set up and distributed as described in the previous sections, with K1 known to the client and the Web server only, while K2 is known to the client, the Web server, and the intermediate proxy servers. A similar technique can be applied when IPSec encryption is used instead of SSL encryption. The advantage here is that the size of the packet does not increase, although there is the overhead of distributing key K2 to the proxy servers to be considered. HTTPS OVER IPSEC For the sake of completeness, we consider the situation where a secure Web page is requested over an IPSec tunnel. This method involves redundancy of resources, since use of SSL when IPSec is being used does not provide any substantially added security. However, our approach can take care of the performance in this scenario as well. In this situation, we propose integrating DSSL with layered IPSec. Then the secondary keys for both the layered IPSec connection and the DSSL connection are shared with the proxy servers. The secondary key for layered IPSec is shared with both the TCP proxy and the HTTP proxy. When layered IPSec encrypts the packet, the secondary key encryption extends up to the proxy SSL record. The TCP proxy servers can therefore decrypt the TCP header of the ESP packet, and the HTTP proxy server can decrypt the proxy SSL record. Consequently, performance optimizations for both TCP and HTTP are allowed without letting the intermediate servers read the HTML page. A schematic of the IPSec packet in this setting is shown in Fig. 8. A HIERARCHICAL APPROACH TO KEY MANAGEMENT FOR DATA SECURITY IN HYBRID NETWORKS In [21], we have proposed a key-management framework for distributing cryptographic keys securely and in a scalable manner to users taking part in group communication in a hybrid satellite network. The objective is to ensure data confidentiality, by encrypting the data traffic with group keys known to all the group members. The key-management framework is built on top of the multicast routing architecture. We have considered the hybrid network topology shown in Fig. 1b and designed a multicast routing architecture to allow users to communicate seamlessly between multiple terrestrial LANs (also referred to as subnetworks) [22]. Our routing design makes specific use of asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) point-to-multipoint routing [23] over the satellite links, and Protocol-Independent Multicast Sparse-Mode (PIM-SM) multicast routing [24] in terrestrial LANs. We have extended PIM-SM to allow multiple rendezvous points (RPs) in each multicast group. The satellite gateway in each LAN acts as the local RP for the LAN and creates the local multicast trees for group members within the LAN. The local multicast trees are connected together over the satellite links by using the ATM point-to-multipoint virtual connection, thereby creating one end-to-end multicast tree for each group, encompassing all the LANs with group members in them. The multicast routing architecture is thus adapted closely to the hierarchical network topology, and allows for building efficient multicast trees with low control and data overhead. The design of the key-management protocol is independent of the routing algorithm, although it is based on the same underlying principle, that is, a hierarchical breakup of the network based on the topology. We divide the network into two levels — the lower level, comprised of terrestrial LANs where the users are located, and a higher level consisting of the satellite, the NOC, and the satellite gateways or RPs in each LAN, which together form an overlay (Fig. 9a) interconnecting terrestrial LANs. The RPs act as the â€Å"bridge† between the two levels. Key management is done separately in the two levels. In each LAN we introduce a local group controller (called the â€Å"subnetwork key controller† or SKC) to manage the keys for all groups active in the LAN. The SKC is responsible for access control of all members of all groups that are active in its LAN, generating the group keys for all local groups, and updating the keys on group-member joins and leaves when a group is active. The keys managed by an SKC are entirely local to its LAN, and do not affect the key management in any other LAN in the network. The SKC uses the LKH algorithm to manage keys in its LAN, creating a logical key tree that we term the SN Tree. Each group active in a LAN has its own SN Tree. The leaves of the SN Tree for a group correspond to the longterm shared secrets between the SKC and the local users in the LAN who are active as sources and/or receivers in the group. The root of the SN Tree corresponds to the session key that is used for encrypting the group traffic within the LAN at any particular instant. On member joins and leaves, the session key, and all the keys on the path from the root to the leaf node corresponding to the member joining/leaving, are updated, while all other keys in the SN Tree remain unchanged. The overlay has its own key management, 58 IEEE Wireless Communications †¢ December 2005 Overlay RP tree root key Level-1 Satellite Overlay network NOC Gateway Gateway Gateway SN tree SKC RP (root) RP (leaf) SKC RP tree RP (leaf) Gateway Level-0 SKC Subnet n Subnet 1 Subnet 2 (a) Subnet 3 Subnetwork Subnetwork (b) Subnetwork n Figure 9. A hierarchical approach to key management in hybrid networks: a) hierarchy in the hybrid network; b) tiered tree key management. also based on the LKH algorithm. At the overlay level, the key management for a particular group is controlled by the satellite gateway/RP (known as the root RP for that group) of the LAN that has group sources active for the longest continuous period in the group. The logical key tree for any group thus formed at the overlay is termed the RP Tree. The root RP is responsible for generating keys for the RPs of the LANs who subscribe to the particular group, that is, have sources and/or receivers active in the LAN. Each group has its own RP Tree. The design ensures that the NOC cannot receive/transmit data to any active group, unless it explicitly subscribes to the group as a member node. However, LANs joining any particular group initially register with the NOC, which maintains a group membership table for all active groups, so that at all times the NOC is aware of the LANs which are participating in all active groups. The NOC is also responsible for selecting the root RP of the RP Tree for each group, which it does based on the earliest-to-join policy. The root RP also might be different for different groups, since the LAN with the longest continuously active sources might be different for different groups. Our algorithm has the provision to allow the root RP for any group to change — this happens if the currently active root RP leaves the group, when all sources/receivers within its local LAN cease to participate in the group. Our algorithm therefore builds a hierarchy of logical key trees that closely follow the hierarchy in the network topology, as shown in Fig. 9b. We term this framework Tiered Tree-based Key Management. In this hierarchy of key trees, the gateway RPs are responsible for performing key translation on all the multicast group traffic as it transmits the data from local sources to receivers in remote LANs, or when it receives group traffic from remote sources for local receivers. This translation is necessary since the data traffic is encrypted with the RP Tree session key in the overlay, and with the SN Tree session ey within the local LAN, with the two session keys being independent of one another. The detailed design of Tiered Tree-based Key Management, analysis of its security, and experimental results can be found in [25]. The primary objective in our design is to minimize the amount of key-management control traffic n Figure 10. Tiered tree framework: total key management traffic vs. RP tree traffic for three groups (Y-axis shows the traffic in bytes per second; X-axis is the simulation duration in minutes). hat flows over the satellite links, due to the long delay involved as well as susceptibility to channel errors. We have attempted to ensure that the security of the data traffic does not add any overhead in terms of delay other than that absolutely unavoidable, and that the security protocol does not contribute to deadlocks in group-data dissemination where some group members in certain LANs cannot read the data due to having wrong keys. From the simulation results, Fig. 10 shows the reduction in key-control traffic over the satellite links using our tiered-tree approach. The graph compares the total key-management IEEE Wireless Communications †¢ December 2005 59 Our solution is a generic solution aimed specifically at multicast key management and does not deal with an end-to-end security solution for secure communication or give any implementation specifics. information sent in the network for three simultaneous groups (i. e. , sent over the RP trees, sent over the satellite links, and all SN trees limited to local LANs), to the total key information sent on the RP trees (satellite links) only. As the graph shows, the resource savings on the satellite links is substantial when the tiered-tree scheme is used. Even though the group dynamics are high, the amount of message exchanges are very few in the RP tree, that is, over the satellite links. If a flat key-management hierarchy had been used instead, the total key-management traffic would have been sent over the satellite links, thus leading to increased delay and increasing the possibility that the correct keys do not reach all the members at the same time. Our solution is therefore very scalable. It also acknowledges the fact that the group members might be located in different security domains and, therefore, a single network-wide security management might not be possible. This is a more realistic scenario, since terrestrial LANs might be individual company domains, while the satellite overlay infrastructure is usually owned by a separate entity that provides network connectivity to the LANs, and is not responsible for generating the network traffic. This framework addresses the problem that all users might not be visible to a single, centralized security authority, and the dynamics of user joins or leaves in one LAN should not create an overhead to users in other LANs. Also, in widearea satellite networks we consider that the satellite channel conditions at a given point in time might be different in different sections of the network. There might be loss in information due to bad channel conditions in some network segments; however, this should not disrupt communication in network segments where the channel conditions are better. Solutions which treat all users in a single tree will not be able to perform as robustly under such conditions. Our solution is also similar to the ML-IPSec concept in that the satellite terminals are only partially trusted; they are allowed to do partial decryption/encryption of the IP packets for efficient routing. However, it is a generic solution aimed specifically at multicast key management and does not deal with an end-to-end security solution for secure communication or give any implementation specifics. approaches for typical topologies and validating the proposed designs by simulation. Lastly, we have described our hierarchical approach of key management for providing data security in hybrid networks. We are continuing our research in this area and examining designs to integrate our keymanagement protocol with the unicast case. A considerable amount of work needs to be done with regard to secure protocols for hybrid networks, specifically for the case where users are mobile. Here we have touched upon only a small subset of the problems. None of the proposed solutions, including our own, address the question of user authentication or message integrity for group communication. However, we believe the security problems discussed here will receive further treatment from the research community, and this work will be a useful contribution to the field. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions. The research reported here is supported by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Marshall Space Flight Center under award no. NCC8-235. The views expressed in this article are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not reflect the views or position of NASA or any of its components. REFERENCES [1] J. Border et al. , â€Å"Performance Enhancing Proxies Intended to Mitigate Link-Related Degradations,† IETF RFC 3135, June 2001. [2] V. Arora et al. , â€Å"Effective Extensions of Internet in Hybrid Satellite-Terrestrial Networks,† University of Maryland, College Park, Tech. Rep. CSHCN TR 96-2, 1996. [3] V. Bharadwaj, â€Å"Improving TCP Performance over HighBandwidth Geostationary Satellite Links,† University of Maryland, College Park, Tech. Rep. ISR TR MS-99-12, 1999. [4] N. Ehsan, M. Liu, and R. Ragland, â€Å"Evaluation of Performance Enhancing Proxies in Internet over Satellite,† Wiley Int’l. J. Commun. Sys. , vol. 16, Aug. 2003, pp. 513–34. [5] NIST, â€Å"Digital Signature Standard (DSS),† May 19, 1994. [6] H. Krawczyk, M. Bellare, and R. Canetti, â€Å"HMAC: KeyedHashing for Message Authentication,† IETF RFC 2104, Feb. 1997. [7] R. Atkinson and S. Kent, â€Å"Security Architecture for the Internet Protocol,† IETF RFC 2401, Nov. 1998. [8] IETF Transport Layer Security Working Group, â€Å"The SSL Protocol Version 3. 0,† Nov. 1996, available at http://wp. netscape. com/eng/ssl3/draft302. txt [9] R. Atkinson and S. Kent, â€Å"IP Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP),† IETF RFC 2406, Nov. 998. [10] Y. Zhang, â€Å"A Multilayer IP Security Protocol for TCP Performance Enhancement in Wireless Networks,† IEEE JSAC, vol. 22, no. 4, 2004, pp. 767–76. [11] M. Karir and J. Baras, â€Å"LES: Layered Encryption Security,† Proc. ICN’04, Guadeloupe (French Caribbean), Mar. 2004. [12] E. Olechna, P. Feighery, and S. Hryckiewicz, â€Å"Virtual Private Network Issues Using Satellite Based Networks,† MILCOM 2001, vol. 2, 2001, pp. 785–89. [13] P. Chitre, M. Karir, and M. Hadjitheodosiou, â€Å"TCP in the IPSec Environment,† AIAA ICSSC 2004, Monterey, CA, May 2004. 14] SSL Accelerator, Spacenet Inc. , available at http://www. spacenet. com/technology/advantages/ssl. ht ml [15] M. P. Howarth et al. , â€Å"Dynamics of Key Management in Secure Satellite Multicast,† IEEE JSAC, vol. 22, no. 2, 2004, pp. 308–19. [16] C. Wong, M. Gouda, and S. S. Lam, â€Å"Secure Group Communications Using Key Graphs,† IEEE/ACM Trans. Net. , vol. 8, 2000, pp. 16–30. CONCLUSION Security is a critical component in hybrid IPbased satellite networks. In this article we have focused on some of the challenges that lie ahead. We have discussed the unique characteristics of hybrid satellite networks that make the problem of ensuring secure communication different from that of purely terrestrial networks. We have presented a survey of the various security solutions that have been proposed, and discussed their advantages and disadvantages. We have proposed several approaches to solve the performance problems of TCP and HTTP in satellite networks arising from secure communication. However, a lot of further work needs to be done to validate our approaches, and we are in the process of developing specific detailed security 0 IEEE Wireless Communications †¢ December 2005 [17] D. Wallner, E. Harder, and R. Agee, â€Å"Key Management for Multicast: Issues and Architectures,† IETF RFC 2627, June 1999, available at http://www. apps. ietf. org/rfc/ rfc2627. html [18] G. Noubir and L. von Allmen, â€Å"Security Issues in Internet Protocols over Satellite Links,† Proc. IEEE VTC ‘99, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1999. [19] L. Duquerroy et al. , â€Å"SatIPSec: An Optimized Solution for Securing Multicast and Unicast Satellite Transmissions,† 22nd AIAA Int’l. Commun. Sat. Sys. Conf. and Exhibit, Monterey, CA, May 2004. [20] Y. Song, V. Leung, and K. Beznosov, â€Å"Supporting Endto-End Security across Proxies with Multiple-Channel SSL,† Proc. 19th IFIP Info. Sec. Conf. , Toulouse, France, Aug. 2004, pp. 323–37. [21] A. Roy-Chowdhury and J. Baras, â€Å"Key Management for Secure Multicast in Hybrid Satellite Networks,† 19th IFIP Info. Sec. Conf. , Toulouse, France, Aug. 2004. [22] A. Roy-Chowdhury and J. Baras, â€Å"Framework for IP Multicast in Satellite ATM Networks,† AIAA ICSSC 2004, Monterey, CA, May 2004. [23] G. Armitage, â€Å"Support for Multicast over UNI 3. 0/3. 1 Based ATM Networks,† Internet RFC 2022, Nov. 1996. [24] S. Deering et al. , â€Å"The PIM Architecture for Wide-Area Multicast Routing,† IEEE/ACM Trans. Net. , vol. 4, no. 2, 1996, pp. 153–62. [25] A. Roy-Chowdhury, â€Å"IP Routing and Key Management for Secure Multicast in Satellite ATM Networks,† Master’s thesis, University of Maryland, College Park, 2003, available at http://techreports. isr. umd. edu/reports/2004/ MS2004-1. pdf Paper Award, 2004 WiSe Conference. He holds three patents. His research interests include wireless networks and MANET, wireless network security and information assurance, integration of logic programming and nonlinear programming for trade-off analysis, multicriteria optimization, noncooperative and cooperative dynamic games, robust control of nonlinear systems and hybrid automata, mathematical and statistical physics algorithms for control and communication systems, distributed asynchronous control and communication systems, object-oriented modeling of complex engineering systems, satellite and hybrid communication networks, network management, fast Internet services over hybrid wireless networks, stochastic systems, planning and optimization, intelligent control and learning, biologically inspired algorithms for signal processing, and sensor networks. MICHAEL HADJITHEODOSIOU [M] received an M. A. (honours) in electrical and information sciences from the University of Cambridge, United Kingdom, in 1989, an M. S. in electrical and computer engineering from the University of California, Irvine in 1992, and a Ph. D. n engineering (specializing in satellite communications) from the Centre for Satellite Engineering Research (CSER) at the University of Surrey, United Kingdom, in 1995. Among his awards are a scholarship award for studies at the University of Cambridge from the Cambridge Commonwealth Trust (1984–1986); a Fulbright Scholarship for post-graduate work in the United States (1989–1991); a Research Fellowship from the U. K. Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) (1992); and the Canadian National Science and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) post-doctoral fellowship award (1995). He worked as a research fellow in the Communication Systems group of CSER (1991–1995) and spent a year as a visiting fellow at the Canadian Government Communications Research Center (CRC) (1995–1996). In November 1996 he joined the Center for Satellite and Hybrid Communication Networks (CSHCN) at the Institute for Systems Research, University of Maryland, College Park, where he is currently an assistant research scientist. He is an expert on space communications and satellite networks. His research interests include performance optimization of wireless and hybrid networks, security and protocol support issues for satellite systems, and design optimization of next-generation broadband satellite networks and applications. He is currently working on supporting the communication needs of NASA enterprises and the communication architecture enabling space exploration. He is currently serving as secretary of the IEEE Satellite and Space Communications Technical Committee. SPYRO PAPADEMETRIOU received his B. S. in computer science from George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia. Since then he has been actively involved in Internet research and development within both industry and academia. He was the principal Internet researcher at Synectics Corp. , where he developed network and database software. He worked as a researcher at the University of Maryland’s Institute for Systems Research, where he designed and developed their first networking laboratory, which is part of the CSHCN. At Inktomi Corp. he spearheaded client acceleration research and was a member the content-distribution network design team. These resulted in several patent filings, of which he holds one. The latter also resulted in American Online’s Web client accelerator product. Currently he is with Orbital Data Corp. working on network and application optimization. His research interests include network optimization, application optimization, satellite and terrestrial wireless networking, delay-tolerant networks, sensor networks, distributed systems, and network software architecture. We have touched upon only a small subset of the problems. None of the proposed solutions, including our own, address the question of user authentication or message integrity for group communication. BIOGRAPHIES AYAN ROY-CHOWDHURY (ayan@isr. umd. edu) received his B. E. in electronics and telecommunications engineering in 1998 from Jadavapur University, India, and his M. S. in electrical engineering in 2003 from the University of Maryland, College Park, where he is currently a Ph. D. student. Between 1998 and 2000 he worked as a senior software engineer at Wipro Technologies, India. His research focuses on the design of protocols and frameworks for secure communication in hybrid networks. He is working on secure protocols for unicast and multicast routing in networks that have wired and wireless terrestrial components interconnected by satellite links. He is also looking into key management techniques for secure data transmission for these network architectures, and efficient user-authentication mechanisms for the same. As part of these topics, he is also investigating performance problems for network communication in satellite networks when security is involved. J OHN S. B ARAS [F] received a B. S. in electrical engineering from National Technical University of Athens, Greece, in 1970, and M. S. and Ph. D. degrees in applied mathematics from Harvard University in 1971 and 1973, respectively. He was founding director of the Institute for Systems Research (one of the first six NSF Engineering Research Centers) from 1985 to 1991. Since August 1973 he has been with the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department and Applied Mathematics Faculty at the University of Maryland, College Park. In 1990 he was appointed to the Lockheed Martin Chair in Systems Engineering. Since 1991 he has been director of the Center for Hybrid and Satellite Communication Networks (a NASA Research Partnership Center). Among his awards are the 1980 Outstanding Paper A How to cite Hybrid Network Security, Papers

Accounting & Financial Management for Analysis- myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theAccounting Financial Management for Vertical Analysis. Answer: Recommendation From the above analysis of the financial statements through the horizontal and vertical analysis and the ratio analysis, various inferences can be drawn and following are the recommendations for both the companies in this regard: The revenue base for both the banks ANZ and the commonwealth bank has fairly remained constant for all the 3 years however, the gross profit percentage has increased for both, commonwealth bank being on the slightly higher side. In order the bank targets to improve the gross margin, it needs to increase its top line(Goldmann, 2016). The return of equity has dropped substantially for ANZ whereas for commonwealth bank, it has remained fairly constant. This is mainly because in ANZ bank, the net profit attributable to the shareholders has declined by huge margin. For this, the company needs to increase its topline and decrease the indirect and the direct expenses(Gerlach, Mora, Uysal, 2018). Debt being on higher side in commonwealth bank, the gearing ratio is way too high as compared to the ANZ bank. This is risky from the shareholders perspective and the company should thus try to reduce the proportion of debt in the capital structure. ANZ is just above the industry ratio and thus, it should also try to lower it down. In terms of horizontal analysis, it can be seen that the profit of commonwealth bank has decerased mainly on account of decrease in revenue and increase in operating expenses therefore the same should be controlled and within the budget to make the industry margin. In terms of cash flow statement, there is a lot of variation in the cash flow from operating activities in commonwealth bank and it has decreased by 270% in 2016 and 78% in 2017, which is an indicator that the company is facing cash flow issues. In sharp contract, the cash flow from operating activities in ANZ banks is fairly stable which shows the continuous flow of cash in the company and hence CWB has to drive its cash flow in a much more planned way going forward. Furthermore, the commonwealth bank has been issuing debt or loan capital on a continuous basis throughout the 3 years due to which the debt equity ratio ha increased beyond the industry average. The ANZ bank has been stable in this regard and had issued equity shares only in 2015. Therefore CWB bank needs to repay the loan capital soon(Alexander, 2016). From the vertical analsysis, it can be seen that for ANZ bank, the proportion of expenses as a % of revenue has not varied much in the last 3 years whereas for CWB bank, the interest expenses have declined considerably from 60% to 56% to 53%, other parameters remaining almost constant. Therefore, ANZ bank needs to decrease its interest expenses in order to remain competitive in the industry. In ANZ banks balance sheet analysis, it can be seen that the current tax assets and the deferred tax assets has undergone major changes in the last 3 years, other components being almost constant whereas in CWB bank, the proportion of loan capital has increased year on year and hence ANZ and CWB bank needs to stabilise its tax and debt respectively to give more security to the shareholders(Heminway, 2017). Conclusion From the above in depth analysis and the recommmendations on the financial statements, it can be concluded that the though commonwealth banks income and profit has increased over the past 3 years but the status of the balnce sheet reflects that there is a lot of risk in terms of the cash flow and reh increase in the debt capital year on year. On the other hand, ANZ has been fairly stable in all the respects, be it revenue or the profit or the balance sheet status. It can therefore, be said that the company has not been growing in the last 3 year and it needs to take strong steps in order to increase revenue and profitability. References Alexander, F. (2016). The Changing Face of Accountability. The Journal of Higher Education, 71(4), 411-431. Gerlach, J., Mora, N., Uysal, P. (2018). Bank funding costs in a rising interest rate environment. Journal of Banking and Finance, 87, 164-186. Goldmann, K. (2016). Financial Liquidity and Profitability Management in Practice of Polish Business. Financial Environment and Business Development, 4, 103-112. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-39919-5_9 Heminway, J. (2017). Shareholder Wealth Maximization as a Function of Statutes, Decisional Law, and Organic Documents. SSRN, 1-35.